Parenting and the Development of Social Competence in Early Childhood.

It is well documented that early childhood (ages 3-8) is an important stage for children's development of social competence. (1) Social competence is generally defined as a child's ability to interact with peers and adults in an effective and appropriate manner. (2) It includes a child's ability to play well with others, take others' perspectives and manage interpersonal conflicts. Developing social competence in early childhood is important because it is positively related to academic success and mental health later in life (3) and negatively associated with internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors. (4) Research suggests that parenting during early childhood is associated with the extent to which children develop social competence. (5) Parenting refers to the interactions that parents and children share that shape the children's development.

Since developing social competence in early childhood is important for later outcomes, and is influenced by parenting, it is valuable to evaluate how parenting specifically impacts this development. This review strives to examine research on the effects of parenting--particularly parental approaches to discipline and connecting with their child--on social competence to determine the parenting strategies that are most beneficial for promoting it. Knowledge of these strategies, in turn, can provide support for interventions aimed at helping parents interact with their children most effectively during early childhood to foster positive outcomes. The Theoretical Foundation for this Review

The relationship between parenting and the development of social competence in early childhood is supported by various theories including Bandura's Social Learning Theory, which was chosen as the framework for this review to help focus its analyses and discussion (see fig.1).

Social Learning Theory suggests that children learn social skills by observing and modeling the behavior of those around them. (6) If children see their parents being generous, for example, they, in turn, will be more likely to be generous to peers. Social Learning Theory also suggests that children learn to adjust behavior based on environmental reinforcers. If a parent encourages a child to cooperate with a peer, redirects their negative behavior, or helps them talk through a peer conflict, the child is thought to internalize this feedback and be more likely to act accordingly in the future. Alternatively, Social Leaning Theory would suggest that if a parent does not provide this reinforcement or provides feedback in a negative or controlling way, the child would not be motivated to adjust their behavior and as a result, not learn to modify it in a socially appropriate way. (7) Taking these notions into account, it was hypothesized that this review would demonstrate that connected, consistent, and supportive, yet firm, parenting is positively associated with social competence development during early childhood, and that harsh and rigid parenting is negatively associated with this development.

The Development of Social Competence in Early Childhood

As noted above, early childhood is an important developmental stage for social skills. During this stage, children begin to actively explore their environment and develop a sense of self. As they develop this sense of self, children also begin to experiment with not complying with parental requests as a way to assert independence and test boundaries. (8) Young children's active, individual exploration and testing of boundaries coincides with increased interaction with peers and teachers as many enter preschool. This interaction provides children with more opportunities to develop socially competent behaviors like showing empathy, working cooperatively, and initiating play with others. (9)

Developing social competence in early childhood has been linked to positive outcomes across multiple domains of functioning. Children who demonstrate socially competent behaviors in early childhood, for example, have been shown to be well-liked by their peers, perform well in school, and have positive emotional adjustment and mental health later in life. (10) Children who lack this social competence, however, often have significantly weaker peer relations and are at a greater risk for problem behaviors throughout childhood and adolescence. (11) Since social competence in early childhood benefits later outcomes, research has explored factors that contribute to its development. Parenting in Early Childhood

One important contributing factor to the development of social competence is parenting. Parenting, as noted above, refers to the interactions that parents share with their children that help shape the children's development. These interactions include those focused on disciplining children and setting rules for their behavior based on social norms, teaching children skills such as socialization, and fostering connectedness (e.g., a strong emotional bond) between parents and children. Because of the developmental changes occurring in early childhood (discussed above), parenting during this stage often requires different strategies than parenting during infancy. (12 ) With infants, parents focus mostly on recognizing and attending to their children's basic needs. The degree to which parents are sensitive to their infant's basic needs and respond to them in an appropriate manner impacts the type of attachment formed. (13) This attachment forms the foundation for the parent-child relationship in early childhood, but this relationship is also influenced by other dynamics. In early childhood, parents must not only attend to their children's basic needs. They must also support their children's growing need for independence, while still connecting with them, setting rules for their behavior, and disciplining them when they do not follow these rules. (14) Recent work also suggests that parenting by mothers and fathers during early childhood may contribute to children's development of social competence in differential ways. (15)

Generally, research suggests that the degree to which parents set behavioral rules in a way that fosters children's autonomy, while still encouraging compliance, impacts children's social competence development during this stage. (16) William Roberts and Janet Strayer, for example, found that parents who were observed and reported to be more sensitive to their children's growing needs for autonomy and consistent, yet gentle, with their delivery of these rules had children who demonstrated more prosocial behavior and had more playmates in preschool. (17) Martin Hoffman discussed the benefits of inductive discipline where parents focus on limit setting, logical consequences, and conversations with children about the rationale for disciplinary acts. (18) By including children in this disciplinary process and using reason and compassion to enforce rules and consequences, parents demonstrate a respect for their children's burgeoning sense of self. Showing this respect can help parents gain their children's trust and support, and ultimately, this helps children internalize the rules and apply them to future situations. This application of parental messages to peer situations contributes to children's development and display of social competence. (19)

Children who trust and feel supported by their parents not only tend to listen more to them, but also are more likely to see them as positive role models. Since they see them as positive role models, it is thought that these children value their parents' feedback more and feel more comfortable discussing social challenges with them. (20) In these conversations, parents can help children understand their own feelings and gain perspective on the feelings of others. These conversations can assist children in learning to empathize with others, which benefits their social...