“We sleep 10cm apart so there is no social distancing”: COVID-19 preparedness in a Zimbabwean prison complex

• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPH-10-2021-0101
• Published date: 01 February 2022
• Date: 01 February 2022
• Pages: 157-180
• Subject Matter: Health & social care,Criminology & forensic psychology,Prisoner health,Sociology,Sociology of crime & law,Public policy & environmental management,Policing,Criminal justice
• Author: Rosemary Mhlanga-Gunda,Simbarashe Rusakaniko,Anne Nyararai Chinyuku,Valentine Farai Pswarayi,Charmaine Sabrina Robinson,Stephanie Kewley,Marie Claire Van Hout

“We sleep 10cm apart so there is no social

distancing”: COVID-19 preparedness in a

Zimbabwean prison complex

Rosemary Mhlanga-Gunda, Simbarashe Rusakaniko, Anne Nyararai Chinyuku,

Valentine Farai Pswarayi, Charmaine Sabrina Robinson, Stephanie Kewley and

Marie Claire Van Hout

Abstract

Purpose –Prisons in Africa face unprecedented challenges during Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).

In July 2020, the first prison system case of COVID-19 was notified in Zimbabwe. Subsequently, the

Zimbabwe Prisons and Correctional Services released their COVID-19 operational plan. The purpose of the

study was to assess preparedness, prevention and control of COVID-19 in selected prisons in Zimbabwe.

Design/methodology/approach –A multi-method situation assessment of COVID-19 prepa redness was

conducted across three Zimbabwean prisons. The World He alth Organization checklist to evaluate

preparedness, prevention and control of COVID-19 in prisons was admi nistered to frontline health managers.

Information garnered was further explored during site ob servation and in multi-stakeholder key informant

interviews with policymakers, prison health direct orate, frontline health-care professionals, officers in charge

and non-governmental organizations (n= 26); focus group dis cussions with correctional officers (n=18);and

male/female prisoners (n= 36). Data was triangulated and analyzed using co ntent thematic analysis.

Findings –Outdated infrastructure, severe congestion, interrupted water supply and inadequate

hygieneand sanitation were conducive to ill-healthand spread of disease. Health professionalshad been

well-trainedregarding COVID-19 disease control measures.COVID-19 awareness among prisonerswas

generally adequate. Therewas no routine COVID-19 testing in place, beyond thermo scanning. Access

to health care was good, but standards were hindered by inadequate medicines and personnel

protective equipment supply. Isolation measures were compromised by accommodation capacity

issues. Flow of prison entries constituted a transmission risk. Social distancing was impossible during

meals and at night.

Originality/value –This unique situation assessment of Zimbabwean prisons’ preparedness and

approach to tackling COVID-19 acknowledges state and prison efforts to protect prisoners and staff,

despiteinfrastructural constraints and inadequateresourcing from government.

Keywords Health in prison, Zimbabwe, Human rights, Infectiousdisease, COVID-19, Mandela rules,

Prisoners

Paper type Research paper

Background

On March 11th, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced that the

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak (a respiratory illness caused by the Severe

Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 or SARS-CoV-2) was a pandemic (World Health

Organization, 2020a). Criminaljustice and prison systems worldwide faced, and continue to

face, unprecedented challenges during COVID-19 (United Nations Office on Drugs and

Crime, 2020a;World Health Organization, 2020b). Prisons are high risk environments for

communicable disease outbreaks, particularly airborne diseases, such as tuberculosis

(TB), and now COVID-19 with potential for rapid transmission because of prison confines,

(Informationabout the

authorscan be found at the

end of this article.)

Received 1 October 2021

Revised 27 November 2021

6 January 2022

Accepted 6 January 2022

First and foremost, the authors

acknowledge all study

participants, bothmale and

female prisoners,prison wardens

and officers at the selected

prisons and all key informants,

without whose kind permission,

this study would never have been

successful. Theyalso thank the

Zimbabwe Prisons and

Correctional Servicesfor giving

us permission to conduct this

study.

Funding Statement:Th e Global

Challenges Research Fund

(GCRF) Small GrantsScheme

2021, Liverpool John Liverpool

John Moore’s University, 2021.

DOI 10.1108/IJPH-10-2021-0101 VOL. 19 NO. 2 2023, pp. 157-180, ©Emerald Publishing Limited, ISSN 1744-9200 jINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRISONER HEALTH jPAGE 157

high population density and turnover (Beaudry et al.,2020). Prisoners with chronic ill-health

are especially vulnerable to severe COVID disease (Beaudry et al.,2020). On March 25th,

2020, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights called on States to decongest their

prisons as a critical component of their overall COVID-19 response (OHCHR, 2020; United

Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, World Health Organization, UNAIDS, and Office of the

High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2020;Amon, 2020). Early and emergency prison

release schemes, presidentialpardons and amnesties were implemented in many countries

(Simpson and Butler, 2020; Lines et al., 2020). In 2020, several key non-binding United

Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), WHO and Penal Reform International

technical guidance documents (World Health Organization, 2020b;World Health

Organization, 2020c;United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2020a;Penal Reform

International, 2020) werepromulgated at the start of the COVID epidemic.

Approximately one million people are incarcerated in the African continent, where prison

capacity is stretched (over capacityis highest in Uganda at 318%) with, on average, 42% of

the prison populations held in pre-trial detention (World Prison Brief, 2021). Historical poor

standards and conditions of detention in many African member states were observed by

the most recent inspection report published by the African Commission on Human and

Peoples’ Rights (2012) (ACHPR) Special Rapporteur on Prisons. The COVID-19 pandemic

has highlighted the significant risks to health in African prisons, where lack of resourcing in

government COVID-19 responses has contributed to an inadequate COVID-19 response

(Nkengasong and Mankoula, 2020;Muntingh, 2020;Van Hout, 2020a;Van Hout, 2020b;

Nweze et al.,2020;World Prison Brief, 2021;Van Hout and Wessels, 2021;Van Hout et al.,

2021). The threat of COVID-19 was not confinedto those in detention but extended to prison

staff and their families, visitorsand local communities (Van Hout, 2020c;Van Hout, 2020d).

The first COVID-19 case in Africa was reported in Egypt, followed by Algeria, spreading to

23 southern and east African countries (except Lesotho) in the period March 5th, 2020, to

April 15th, 2020 (Muntingh, 2020).Several declarations were issued by the ACHPR outlining

effective human rights-based responses to COVID-19 in prisons, which urged Member

States to decongest prisons and upscale disease mitigation and control measures (African

Commission on Human and Peoples’Rights, 2020a;African Commission on Human and

Peoples’Rights, 2020b). By May 26th, 2020, prisons in Algeria, Sierra Leone, Cameroon,

Ghana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Guinea, Egypt, Morocco, Kenya and South Africa

confirmed cases of COVID-19 (Prison Insider, 2020). There is little published data provided

by African States regarding prison release schemes or transparent prison monitoring data

on COVID-19 infection rates (Muntingh, 2020;Nweze et al.,2020). Protests and riots by

both staff and those deprived of their liberty occurred in many African states in response to

the continued committals and severely inadequate COVID-19 mitigation measures

including supply of personal protective equipment (PPE) and COVID-19 testing kits, prison

contagion, lack of health response and existing poor standards of detention and care (lack

of clean water, inadequate disinfection practices, supplies of soap, disinfectant and

medicines) (Prison Insider,2020;Van Hout and Wessels, 2021).

We focus here on Zimbabwe, where the firstprison system case was notified in July 2020 in

a Bulawayo prison where four prisoners and a prison officer tested positive for COVID-19

(Netsianda, 2020). By late July, the number had increased to 43 prisoners and 23 officers

(Muronzi, 2020). As of July 28, the Ministry of Health reported that Zimbabwe had 2,817

confirmed cases of COVID-19 and 40 deaths (Mavhinga, 2020). Shortly thereafter, the

Zimbabwe Prisons and Correctional Services (ZPCSs) released their COVID-19 operational

plan, designed to prevent and mitigate against COVID-19 transmission. Deplorable

environmental conditions in prisons have been reported (Alexander, 2009;United States

State Department, 2016;Zimbabwe Human Rights, 2018). Research conducted by our

team just before the COVID-19 pandemic highlighted continued poor standards of

detention, congestion and chronic ill-health of prisoners in the Zimbabwean prison system

PAGE 158 jINTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PRISONER HEALTH jVOL. 19 NO. 2 2023