Voluntary Work‐related Technology Use during Non‐work Time: A Narrative Synthesis of Empirical Research and Research Agenda

• Author: Svenja Schlachter,Almuth McDowall,Ilke Inceoglu,Mark Cropley
• Published date: 01 October 2018
• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1111/ijmr.12165
• Date: 01 October 2018

International Journal of Management Reviews, Vol. 20, 825–846 (2018)

DOI: 10.1111/ijmr.12165

Voluntary Work-related Technology Use

during Non-work Time: A Narrative

Synthesis of Empirical Research and

Research Agenda

Svenja Schlachter , Almuth McDowall,1Mark Cropley and Ilke Inceoglu2

School of Psychology, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK, 1Department of Organizational Psychology,

Birkbeck, University of London, London WC1E 7HX, UK, and 2Business School, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4

4PU, UK

Corresponding author email: s.schlachter@surrey.ac.uk

The Internet and mobilization of information and communication technologies (ICTs)

havemade non-manual work increasingly portable and remotely accessible. As a result,

a considerable number of employeesuse their ICTs to engage in work-related tasks dur-

ing designated non-work time, even without contractual obligation. However, existing

researchon such voluntary work-related ICT use remainsfragmented and spread across

disciplines. The authors conducted a narrative review of 56 studies to identify themes

in existing research, synthesize the evidence base and identify gaps in understanding.

They identify five themes: (1) Social-normative organizational context, (2) Job-related

characteristics and work processes,(3) Person characteristics, (4) Designated non-work

time and well-being, and (5) Empowerment/Enslavement Paradox. A conceptual model

of voluntary ICT use is developed by integrating the identified themes with existing

organizational research, outlining the relationships between the identified themes and

voluntary ICT use. The discussion emphasizes the need for more conceptual clarity on

voluntary ICT use and relatedconstructs, and for the integration of different disciplines

and methodological approaches to advance knowledge in the field. The authors further

identify person-centred research as a critical future avenue to explore different ICT

user types. Additionally,more research into the mechanisms and moderating influences

regardingvoluntary ICT use and its outcomes is considered advisable to advanceknowl-

edge on the Empowerment/Enslavement Paradox and its potential resolution.The paper

concludes with preliminary implications to informpractice , addressingthe need for em-

ployers to provide control over voluntary ICT use and employees enacting this control.

Introduction

The convenience and reach of information and

communication technologies (ICTs), including lap-

tops, smartphones and tablets, have fundamentally

The authors wish to thank the members of the advisory

panel for their invaluable comments on the search proto-

col. The authors would also like to thank Jenny Lynden for

her helpful and insightful comments on a previous draft of

this manuscript.

Parts of this research were presented at the Division of Occu-

pational Psychology Annual Conference 2015, 7–9 January,

changed. The development of mobile computers

paired with ever-growing Internet coverage, accel-

erating data transmission and virtual access, means

that users are no longer restricted to static comput-

ers. Many work roles have thus become virtually

boundaryless, as employees can work anywhere and

2015, Glasgow, United Kingdom, and at the 17th Congress

of the European Association of Work and Organizational

Psychology, 20–23 May, 2015, Oslo, Norway.

This work was supported by the Economic and Social Re-

search Council [grant number ES/J500148/1].

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution

and reproduction in any medium, provided the original workis properly cited.

C2017 The Authors. International Journal of Management Reviews published by British Academyof Management and John

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826 S. Schlachter et al.

anytime (Davis 2002; Perry et al. 2001), potentially

extending work duties into non-work time. This is il-

lustrated by recent surveys showing that about half of

the sampled employees use their ICTs to workduring

non-work time at least occasionally (GFI Software

2014; National Sleep Foundation2011; Ofcom 2014).

In response to such figures and the frequently asso-

ciated negative outcomes for employees’ well-being

and work–life balance, France implemented a law on

the ‘right to disconnect’ in 2017; which mandates or-

ganizations of a certain size to define explicitly times

during which availability is not required (Minist`

ere

du Travail, de l’Emploi, de la Formation Profes-

sionnelle et du Dialogue Social 2016). However,

despite such measures by governments or individual

organizations and the recognition in research that

ICTs have profoundly changed work and non-work

life as well as work–life boundaries (Bliese et al.

2017; Colbert et al. 2016), the evidence regarding

the antecedents and consequences of work-related

ICT use during non-work time is less clear. This is

partly because there is a lack of conceptual clarity

regarding what constitutes work-related ICT use

during non-work time and whether such ‘hidden

work’ would actually count as compensable work

from a legal perspective (Brecher and Magnus 2017).

Empowerment/enslavement paradox

There are two contrasting perspectives about the

potential consequences of staying available for work

during non-work time, which Jarvenpaa and Lang

(2005) labelled the ‘Empowerment/Enslavement

Paradox’. First, ICT use can empower employees by

facilitating work–life balance through increased flex-

ibility and control (Jarvenpaa and Lang 2005), which

are job characteristics associated with higher levels

of work satisfaction, health and well-being (Costa

et al. 2006), and reduced work–life conflict (Hill

et al. 2010). In line with work-related stress models

(Besseyre des Horts et al. 2012; Day et al. 2010;

Demerouti et al. 2001; Karasek 1979; Nixon and

Spector 2014). Use of ICT could act as a buffer

between work-related demands and perceived strain

by increasing control and flexibility, thus being a

protective factor for well-being. In contrast, use of

ICT can make employees ‘slaves’ by electronically

‘tethering’ them to work 24/7 (Jarvenpaa and Lang

2005; Fender 2011; Richardson and Thompson

2012), decreasing flexibility and control (Besseyre

des Horts et al. 2012; Day et al. 2010; Nixon and

Spector 2014; Townsend and Batchelor 2008). Such

constant availability for work could blur work–life

boundaries and limit employees’ capacity to ‘switch

off’ and recover (Geurts and Sonnentag 2006;

Meijman and Mulder 1998; Zijlstra et al. 2014),

resulting in reduced well-being (Besseyre des Horts

et al. 2012; Day et al. 2010; Nixon and Spector

2014). Empirical support for either perspective or

whether outcomes are potentially influenced by other

factors remains inconclusive. It is therefore timely to

conduct a review of existing research.

This paper refers to ICT use outside regular work

hours and away from regular work premises with

the purpose of performing work-related tasks and

communications as ‘voluntary work-related ICT use

during non-work time’, or ‘voluntary ICT use’ for

short. Such voluntary and discretionary ICT use

extends beyond the timing and amount of formally

contracted work hours (e.g. at night, during evenings,

weekends and holidays) in contrast to, for instance,

contractual on-call work (Fenner and Renn 2004,

2010; Venkatesh and Vitalari 1992). We focus on the

volitional element of ICT use in particular (e.g. proac-

tively keeping ICTs switchedon and connected to the

Internet), although we acknowledge social pressures

to engage in work-related ICT use during non-work

time (e.g. Fenner and Renn 2010; Matusik and Mickel

2011; Mazmanian 2013) and employees being con-

tacted by others (e.g. Arlinghaus and Nachreiner

2013; Schieman and Young 2013). A number of other

terms have been used in this context, albeit inconsis-

tently, including ‘technology-assisted supplemental

work’ (Fennerand Renn 2004), ‘extended availability

for work’ (Dettmers et al. 2016) or ‘unregulated

availability’ (Pangert et al. 2016). Voluntary ICT use

appears to be predominantly relevant for knowledge

workers (Fenner and Renn 2010) whose work entails

a high proportion of non-manual, digitally portable

work. Our review focuses on voluntary ICT use as

a behaviour, although we acknowledge that there

are other relevant constructs such as employees’

perceptions about constant work-related availability

(Ayyagari et al. 2011; Day et al. 2012; Fender 2011).

Information and communication technologies-

enabled working during non-work time has been

discussed for more than two decades (e.g. Bailyn

1988). Research on the topic is, however, still emer-

gent and dispersed across disciplines without a clear

theoretical framework. Given that work-related ICT

use is increasingly inspiring legislation and organiza-

tional policies, it is considered imperative to establish

what is known to date to inform future research and

practice accurately. In doing so, we considered it

C2017 The Authors. International Journal of Management Reviews published by British Academy of Management and John

Wiley & Sons Ltd.