Healing the sacred yoni in the land of Isis: female genital mutilation is banned (again) in Egypt.

• Author: Dillon, Susan A.

1. INTRODUCTION

   Egypt is the second most populous African nation and the most populous Arab nation.(2) Egypt is a leader in Islamic jurisprudence,(3) and its citizenry is 90% Muslim.(4) Female circumcision (female genital mutilation or FGM) has been practiced in Egypt for thousands of years(5) and perhaps as many as 97% of Egyptian "ever-married" women have endured the practice.(6) Although there is disagreement among theologians, fundamentalists continue to promote FGM as an Islamic mandate for the preservation of women's chastity.(7)

   In December 1997, the Egyptian High Administrative Court upheld a ministerial ban on female genital mutilation, effectively putting an end to a lengthy legal battle.(8) This decision has been hailed as a victory in the battle to eradicate FGM. However, successful eradication efforts in other countries, where the practice also has a stronghold, reveal that a multi-faceted educational approach, sensitive to the specific practice and beliefs within the culture, is more effective than a legal attack.(9) This paper concludes that while the court ruling lends credibility to anti-FGM campaigners, it will not abolish the practice. Even more organized, comprehensive, and collaborative efforts by Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) fighting FGM are necessary.

   Parts II and III define FGM and explain why it is practiced. Part IV explains the short and long term health risks of FGM. Part V describes the process by which FGM came to international attention. Part VI describes eradication efforts outside Egypt. Part VII describes the practice of FGM in Egypt. Part VIII traces the history of non-legal eradication efforts within Egypt. Part IX briefly explains pertinent aspects of the Egyptian legal and judicial systems. Part X describes the recent legal battle over FGM within Egypt. Part XI explains why success in the Egyptian High Administrative Court will not be completely effective, legally or socially.

2. WHAT IS FEMALE CIRCUMCISION?

   Circumcision is never even mentioned in the Qur'an.

   The omission is remarkable, and Muslim writers do not attempt any explanation of it. It is held to be sunnah, or founded upon the customs of the Prophet, ... and dating its institution from the time of Abraham.... It is recommended to be performed upon a boy between the ages of seven and twelve.... The circumcision of females is also allowed, and is commonly practised in Arabia.(10) It is estimated that at least 84 million,(11) and perhaps as many as 130 million,(12) women and girls have been subjected to female genital mutilation worldwide. As many as 2,000,000 girls undergo the procedure each year,(13) approximately 6,000 per day.(14) Female genital mutilation is still practiced in at least twenty-six of the forty-three African countries.(15) There are numerous variations in the practice of FGM.

   "Ritual" circumcision is piercing the clitoral prepuce (foreskin) to release a bit of blood.(16) "Sunnah" circumcision is "the removal of the clitoral prepuce and the tip of the clitoris."(17) "Excision" or "clitoridectomy" is the removal of the entire clitoris and usually the labia minora.(18) "Infibulation" or "pharaonic" circumcision also involves removal of the clitoris and labia minora.(19) In addition, part or all of the labia majora may be removed and the two sides fastened together with catgut, thorns, or a paste of gum arabic, sugar, and egg.(20) Where the two sides are not fastened together, the same effect can be achieved by tying a girl's legs together until the two sides have adhered to one another in the healing process.(21) When these wounds finally heal, the introitus of the vagina is almost completely blocked.(22) A very small opening is maintained by inserting a small piece of wood or bamboo.(23) Of necessity, these definitions are generalizations, as the practices and nomenclature can vary among regions, countries, and practitioners, as well as over time.

   Although FGM is not practiced in much of the Islamic world.(24) where the most severe form, infibulation, occurs, it is practiced primarily by Moslems, reportedly because of the high value placed on virgin brides.(25) "Successful" infibulation makes intercourse impossible.(26) Traditionally, infibulated women would be cut open (deinfibulated)(27) to allow sexual intercourse, conception, and childbirth and then reinfibulated several times throughout life.(28) Geographically, infibulation is found in Djibouti, Somalia, Sudan, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal.(29) It is also known as pharaonic circumcision because the 2000 year-old practice can be traced to pharaonic Egypt(30) and pre-Islamic African religious practices.(31)

3. WHY IS FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION PRACTICED?

   The reasons given in support of female genital mutilation are numerous and varied. It is proposed as a way of increasing fertility;(32) making women more aesthetically attractive to men;(33) correcting hypertrophy of the clitoris;(34) promoting cleanliness and purity;(35) preventing transmission of disease, drug use, promiscuity,(36) incurable illness, and death; warding off attacks by evil spirits;(37) facilitating childbirth;(38) enhancing male sexuality;(39) guaranteeing paternity;(40) and reaffirming cultural identity.(41) Some proponents maintain that religious doctrine requires FGM. Again, although much of the Islamic world does not know the practice, it has become associated most often with Islam.(42) In fact, FGM is also practiced by Catholics, Protestants, Copts, and Animists.(43) In addition, where Western colonists have been most vehement in attacking FGM, it has been staunchly defended as an anti-colonial demonstration of national liberation, as in Kenya.(44)

   In some countries, infibulation was, and perhaps still is, practiced as an important rite of passage into adulthood.(45) The ceremony was marked by:

   [S]pecial songs, dances and chants intended to teach the young girl her duties and desirable characteristics as a wife and mother; with ritual rich in symbolism; with special convalescent huts for the girls attended only by the instructress and cut off from the rest of society until their emergence, healed, as marriageable women; or simply with special clothes and food.(46) In some regions today, FGM is being practiced on younger and younger girls for two reasons. First, the younger the child, the easier it is to avoid detection, important as more negative attention and legal action are focused on the practice.(47) Second, there is a fear that older girls are more likely to resist as they are exposed to school and anti-FGM campaigns.(48)

   In some countries, FGM is not practiced on children, but rather on adult women.(49) An adult woman may "consent" due to pressure from her husband, in-laws, and co-wives.(50) For example, among the Meru of Tanzania, the bridegroom was traditionally attendant at his bride's circumcision, to which she submitted as a demonstration of respect for him and his family.(51) The Meru viewed women as sexually insatiable.(52) Circumcision was promoted as a way to prevent wives from making unreasonable sexual demands on their husbands.(53) This event was marked by a degree of care and attention for the bride that she would experience at no other time in her life, except perhaps at childbirth.(54) Finally, circumcision was an absolute prerequisite to marriage (or perhaps constituted the actual marriage ceremony), and only through marriage could a woman have access to resources such as land.(55)

4. HEALTH RISKS TO VICTIMS OF FGM

   Most FGM is performed under septic conditions and without anesthetic.(56) Knives, razor blades, glass,(57) sharp stones, or scissors(58) may be used time after time without ever being sterilized.(59) "Health risks and complications depend upon the gravity of the mutilation, hygienic conditions, the skill and eyesight of the operator, and the struggles of the child."(60) Short-term risks to the child include hemorrhage, shock, tetanus, septicemia, and death.(61) Because one instrument may be used in numerous procedures, there is an increased risk of passing any infection, including HIV, from child to child.(62)

   If the child survives FGM, numerous long-term health risks are possible. In the case of infibulation, only a small opening has been maintained for the elimination of urine and menstrual blood, which can accumulate and result in chronic infection.(63) Keloid scars large enough to impair walking and grapefruit-sized dermoid cysts can form at the wound site.(64) Kidney stones, clitoridal cysts, sterility,(65) dysmennorhea (extremely painful menstruation), neuroma (permanent, unbearable sensitivity), dyspareunia (extremely painful intercourse), and vulval abscesses can all result from FGM.(66) Genitally mutilated women may experience prolonged labor and childbirth, causing fetal brain damage and death of mother, child, or both.(67)

5. INTERNATIONAL ATTENTION ON FGM

   By at least the 1950s, Western countries were aware of female genital mutilations occurring in Africa.(68) However, they were not ready to become involved in studying, much less opposing, "cultural" practices. In 1959, the World Health Organization (WHO) refused an invitation by the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations to study "ritual operations" on girls because the study of social and cultural traditions was "outside the competence of the World Health Organization."(69) It would be another twenty years before a true international dialogue on the topic would erupt.(70)

   Despite the WHO's reservations, individual researchers and independent organizations undertook research and publication on the subject.(71) For example, in March 1975, the Sudan Family Planning Association (SFPA) conducted a seminar on "The Role of Sudanese Women in Development."(72) The SFPA's magazine published several articles on FGM that were presented at the seminar. Later, the SFPA published a separate collection of the FGM...