Effects of predeparture and postarrival cross‐cultural trainings on expatriates adjustment: A study of Chinese expatriates in Nigeria

• DOI: http://doi.org/10.1002/tie.22185
• Author: John O. Okpara,Jean D. Kabongo,Wai Kwan (Elaine) Lau
• Published date: 01 March 2021
• Date: 01 March 2021

VIEW FROM PRACTICE

Effects of predeparture and postarrival cross-cultural

trainings on expatriates adjustment: A study of Chinese

expatriates in Nigeria

John O. Okpara

1

| Jean D. Kabongo

2

| Wai Kwan (Elaine) Lau

1

1

Zeigler College of Business, Bloomsburg

University of Pennsylvania, Bloomsburg,

Pennsylvania

2

Muma College of Business, University of

South Florida at Sarasota-Manatee, Sarasota,

Florida

Correspondence

John O. Okpara, Zeigler College of Business,

Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania,

Bloomsburg, PA.

Email: jokpara@bloomu.edu

Abstract

The increase in economic globalization has created a need for multinational corpora-

tions to use expatriates to manage their foreign subsidiaries. Expatriate employees

face many challenges that they can meet successfully only if they are well prepared

through sound cross-cultural training. In this exploratory study, we investigated the

effects of cross-cultural training on Chinese expatriates in Nigeria. We mainly

focused on the relationship between predeparture and postarrival cross-cultural

training. In this study, we surveyed 198 Chinese expatriates in Nigeria and found that

both predeparture and postarrival training have significant and positive influences on

Chinese expatriates' adjustment. Additionally, our results demonstrated that language

training and previous overseas experience also have positive effects on Chinese

expatriates' adjustment in Nigeria. The implications of these findings are also

discussed.

KEYWORDS

adjustment, China, expatriates, Nigeria, postarrival, predeparture, training

1|INTRODUCTION

The increase in economic globalization has created a need for multina-

tional corporations (MNCs) to use expatriates to manage their foreign

subsidiaries (Briscoe, 2014; Feitosa, Kreutzer, Kramperth, Kramer, &

Salas, 2014; Lai & Yang, 2017; Wang, Fan, Freeman, & Zhu, 2017).

MNCs use expatriates to fill important positions, transfer knowledge,

and control links between subsidiaries and the head office. Expatriates

face many challenges, however; as a result, many of them fail to com-

plete their assignments and must return home early. Expatriate failure

has been a major concern for MNCs because the costs of replacing

them are extremely high (Li-Yueh & Van Vorst, 2010). Earlier studies

have estimated that the cost of each expatriate failure ranges from

USD $150,000 to $1 million per year (Black, 1988; Selmer, 1999). A

recent study by Burgess (2019) found that the direct costs of a failed

assignment can range from $250,000 to $1 million, and the annual

cost of failures to all US companies is estimated at $2 billion. Working

in a culturally different environment is always a challenge, so it is not

surprising that the lack of cultural knowledge and language ability, as

well as the difficulty of adjusting to the local culture, are major factors

contributing to expatriate failure (Kassar, Rouhana, Lythreatis, &

S., 2015). Some studies have shown that cross-cultural training (CCT)

could facilitate cross-cultural adjustment (Briscoe, 2014; Feitosa

et al., 2014; Lai & Yang, 2017; Littrell, Salas, Hess, Paley, &

Riedel, 2006; Morris & Robie, 2001; Okpara & Kabongo, 2011; Wang

et al., 2017). As a result, several studies have investigated the effects

of CCT on expatriate adjustment and have affirmed the importance of

CCT to expatriate adjustment (Briscoe, 2014; Feitosa et al., 2014;

Kealey & Protheroe, 1996; Lai & Yang, 2017; Littrell et al., 2006; Mor-

ris & Robie, 2001; Okpara, 2016; Okpara & Kabongo, 2011, 2017;

Wang et al., 2017; Waxin & Panaccio, 2005).

Despite the vigorous research conducted on CCT, the findings of

these studies still leave many gaps and quite a number of uncer-

tainties in our understanding of this important topic (Wurtz, 2014).

Studies relating to CCT have produced mixed results (Lai &

Yang, 2017; Mendenhall et al., 2004; Morris & Robie, 2001; Okpara &

DOI: 10.1002/tie.22185

Thunderbird Int. Bus. Rev. 2021;63:115–130. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/tie © 2020 Wiley Periodicals LLC. 115

Kabongo, 2011; Wang et al., 2017). For instance, in their review of

CCT literature from 1988 to 2000, Mendenhall et al. (2004) found

that the results of studies reporting a positive influence of CCT on

expatriate adjustment were matched in number by those displaying

nonsignificant results. However, in a meta-analysis review,

Hechanova, Beehr, and Chiristiansen (2003) summarized the results

from six studies that showed a significant negative influence of train-

ing on adjustment. There may be several explanations for the gaps

and variations in the influence of CCT on expatriate adjustment. Pos-

sible explanations may include the absence of studies investigating

the comparative effects of in-country and predeparture training,

where the difference between these has not been truly conceptual-

ized and tested. Furthermore, Wurtz (2014) argued that some studies

have focused on only one of the two types of training (Caligiuri, Phil-

lips, Lazarova, Tarique, & Bu¨rgi, P., 2001; Okpara & Kabongo, 2011),

or they mixed both types of training together (Selmer, 2005; Waxin &

Panaccio, 2005). Because there are so many gaps and uncertainties in

our understanding of this important topic, more research is needed,

especially in developing countries like Nigeria.

Much research hasbeen conducted on CCT and expatriate adjust-

ment (Caligiuri et al., 2001; Lai & Yang, 2017; Mendenhall et al.,2004;

Morris & Robie, 2001; Selmer, 2005; Wang et al., 2017; Waxin &

Panaccio, 2005;Wurtz, 2014). Our review of the literature on CCT and

expatriate adjustment shows that there is a lack of research on this

topic when it comes toAfrica and Nigeria, with the notable exceptions

of some exploratory studies (Abugre, Williams, & Debrah, 2019;

Abugre, Yaw, & Debrah, 2019; Okpara, 2016; Okpara &

Kabongo, 2011, 2017). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first

empirical research study investigating the influence of predeparture

and postarrival CCT on the adjustment of Chinese expatriates in Nige-

ria. This studythus. Fills a gap in the literaturethat improves our under-

standing on this subject. Furthermore, given that there is influx of

Chinese workers in Nigeria and other African countries, it is imperative

to understand the challenges Chinese expatriates face in their adjust-

ment process andinvestigate how to alleviate those challenges. Provid-

ing CCT can help alleviate challenges, facilitate adjustment, prevent

premature returns, and increase performance. It can also help expatri-

ates better understand the cultureof the country. Thus, the purposeof

this research is to examine whether predeparture and postarrival CCT,

language training, and previous overseas experience facilitate Chinese

expatriates'adjustment in Nigeria. This research is important because it

could assist human resource professionals in planning and

implementing appropriate CCT programs for Chinese employees

relocating to Nigeria. It could also help bridge the gap in the literature

on this topic regarding Nigeria, Africa, and other developing countries.

Finally, thisstudy could stimulate further researchon this topic.

2|CONTEXT

China is one of the largest emerging economies in the world and has

gained much attention from researchers and practitioners because of

the rapid growth of its economy and its attractiveness for foreign

direct investment (FDI) over the last 20 years (Deng, 2013). After the

policy of going global was firmly established as a national strategy in

2004, more Chinese firms became eager to enter and compete in the

global market. China's internationalization is one of the most profound

business phenomena of the last decade, and it has occurred in differ-

ent forms. China's outward FDI has grown exponentially to the point

where China is now one of the world's largest investors, with a cumu-

lative FDI stock of over $500 billion in 2012 (UNCTAD, 2013).

According to statistics from the Chinese Ministry of Commerce

(MOFCOM), China's FDI reached USD 107.66 billion (RMB 701.16

billion) in 2017 (MOFCOM, 2018). As China moves to the center of

the global economy, research on the internationalization of Chinese

corporations has gained importance because China offers a good test

case for the FDI model (Deng, 2013).

Despite the growing internationalization of Chinese firms, little is

known yet about the international activities of Chinese multinationals

(Deng, 2013). Along with outward FDI, the Chinese expatriate outflow

has increased significantly over the last 10 years. While training and

development in the Chinese context have recently attracted much

attention from academics, most researchers have been concerned

with the transition process from traditional personnel management to

human resource management and training and development issues in

joint ventures and foreign-invested enterprises in China (Deng, 2013).

Little empirical research has been devoted to exploring international

training and management development in Chinese MNCs. Given that

more and more Chinese companies are entering into global competi-

tion and playing significant roles in global economic development,

there is a need for a study that utilizes international human resource

management theory development to examine the training and devel-

opment of Chinese expatriates by Chinese MNCs.

A study of Chinese expatriates in Nigeria is important and rele-

vant for research because there is a knowledge gap on this subject

with respect to Nigeria. If CCT has the potential to facilitate the

adjustment of Chinese expatriates in Nigeria, it should be offered

more frequently and perhaps even be targeted and designed for

Chinese expatriates. It could also help international human resource

managers develop effective CCT programs that will assist other expa-

triates and their families in adjusting and adapting to the Nigerian cul-

tural and business environments. Finally, CCT could help expatriates

and their families better approach and deal with relocation issues,

ensuring that the negative consequences of “culture shock”are

greatly reduced.

3|THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Several theoretical frameworks have been developed to examine the

impact of CCT and expatriates' adjustment. Table 1 shows the

selected theoretical frameworks that have been formulated to explain

why CCT should facilitate the adjustment of expatriates. We selected

the sequential training theory developed by Selmer, Torbiörn, and de

Leon (1998) because it is most applicable to our research. Sequential

training aims to increase the applicability of new behaviors that are

116 OKPARA ET AL.